Female Reproductive System

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SkcddD0LGlM What Is the Female Reproductive System? Most species have two sexes: male and female. Each sex has its own unique reproductive system. They are different in shape and structure, but both are specifically designed to produce, nourish, and transport either the egg or sperm. Unlike the male, the human female has a reproductive system located entirely in the pelvis (that's the lowest part of the abdomen). The external part of the female reproductive organs is called the vulva, which means covering. Located between the legs, the vulva covers the opening to the vagina and other reproductive organs located inside the body. The fleshy area located just above the top of the vaginal opening is called the mons pubis. Two pairs of skin flaps called the labia surround the vaginal opening. The clitoris, a small sensory organ, is located toward the front of the vulva where the folds of the labia join. Between the labia are openings to the urethra and vagina. Once girls become sexually mature, the outer labia and the mons pubis are covered by pubic hair. A female's internal reproductive organs are the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The vagina is a muscular, hollow tube that extends from the vaginal opening to the uterus. The vagina is about 3 to 5 inches long in a grown woman. Because it has muscular walls it can expand and contract. This ability to become wider or narrower allows the vagina to accommodate something as slim as a tampon and as wide as a baby. The vagina's muscular walls are lined with mucous membranes, which keep it protected and moist. The vagina has several functions: for sexual intercourse, as the pathway that a baby takes out of a woman's body during childbirth, and as the route for the menstrual blood (the period) to leave the body from the uterus. A thin sheet of tissue with one or more holes in it called the hymen partially covers the opening of the vagina. Hymens are often different from person to person. Most women find their hymens have stretched or torn after their first sexual experience, and the hymen may bleed a little. Some women who have had sex don't have much of a change in their hymens, though. The vagina connects with the uterus, or womb, at the cervix. The cervix has strong, thick walls. The opening of the cervix is very small, which is why a tampon can never get lost inside a girl's body. During childbirth, the cervix can expand to allow a baby to pass. The uterus is shaped like an upside-down pear, with a thick lining and muscular walls — in fact, the uterus contains some of the strongest muscles in the female body. These muscles are able to expand and contract to accommodate a growing fetus and then help push the baby out during labor. When a woman isn't pregnant, the uterus is only about 3 inches long and 2 inches wide. At the upper corners of the uterus, the fallopian tubes connect the uterus to the ovaries. The ovaries are two oval-shaped organs that lie to the upper right and left of the uterus. They produce, store, and release eggs into the fallopian tubes in the process called ovulation. Each ovary measures about 1 1/2 to 2 inches in a grown woman. There are two fallopian tubes, each attached to a side of the uterus. The fallopian tubes are about 4 inches long and about as wide as a piece of spaghetti. Within each tube is a tiny passageway no wider than a sewing needle. At the other end of each fallopian tube is a fringed area that looks like a funnel. This fringed area wraps around the ovary but doesn't completely attach to it. When an egg pops out of an ovary, it enters the fallopian tube. Once the egg is in the fallopian tube, tiny hairs in the tube's lining help push it down the narrow passageway toward the uterus. The ovaries are also part of the endocrine system because they produce female sex hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. What Does the Female Reproductive System Do? The female reproductive system enables a woman to produce eggs, have sexual intercourse, protect and nourish the fertilized egg until it is fully developed, and give birth. Sexual reproduction couldn't happen without the sexual organs called the gonads. Although most people think of the gonads as the male testicles, both sexes actually have gonads: In females the gonads are the ovaries. The female gonads produce female gametes; the male gonads produce male gametes. After an egg is fertilized by the sperm, the fertilized egg is called the zygote. When a baby girl is born, her ovaries contain hundreds of thousands of eggs, which remain inactive until puberty begins. At puberty, the pituitary gland, located in the central part of the brain, starts making hormones that stimulate the ovaries to produce female sex hormones, including estrogen. The secretion of these hormones causes a girl to develop into a sexually mature woman. Menstruation Toward the end of puberty, girls begin to release eggs as part of a monthly period called the menstration cycle. Approximately once a month, during ovulation, an ovary sends a tiny egg into one of the fallopian tubes. Unless the egg is fertilized by a sperm while in the fallopian tube, the egg dries up and leaves the body about 2 weeks later through the uterus. This process is called menstruation. Blood and tissues from the inner lining of the uterus combine to form the menstrual flow, which in most girls lasts from 3 to 5 days. A girl's first period is called menarche. It's common for women and girls to experience some discomfort in the days leading to their periods. Premenstrual syndrome (PMS) includes both physical and emotional symptoms that many girls and women get right before their periods, such as acne, bloating, fatigue, backaches, sore breasts, headaches, constipation, diarrhea, food cravings, depression, irritability, or difficulty concentrating or handling stress. PMS is usually at its worst during the 7 days before a girl's period starts and disappears once it begins. Many girls also experience abdominal cramps during the first few days of their periods. They are caused by prostaglandins, chemicals in the body that makes the smooth muscle in the uterus contract. These involuntary contractions can be either dull or sharp and intense. It can take up to 2 years from menarche for a girl's body to develop a regular menstrual cycle. During that time, her body is adjusting to the hormones puberty brings. On average, the monthly cycle for an adult woman is 28 days, but the range is from 23 to 35 days. Fertilization and Pregnancy: If a female and male have sex within several days of the female's ovulation, fertilization can occur. When the male ejaculates, between 0.05 and 0.2 fluid ounces of semen is deposited into the vagina. Between 75 and 900 million sperm are in this small amount of semen, and they "swim" up from the vagina through the cervix and uterus to meet the egg in the fallopian tube. It takes only one sperm to fertilize the egg. About a week after the sperm fertilizes the egg, the fertilized egg has become a multi-celled blastocyst. A blastocyst is about the size of a pinhead, and it's a hollow ball of cells with fluid inside. The blastocyst burrows itself into the lining of the uterus, called the endometrium. The hormone estrogen causes the endometrium to become thick and rich with blood. Progesterone, another hormone released by the ovaries, keeps the endometrium thick with blood so that the blastocyst can attach to the uterus and absorb nutrients from it. This process is called implantation. As cells from the blastocyst take in nourishment, another stage of development, the embryonic stage, begins. The inner cells form a flattened circular shape called the embryonic disk, which will develop into a baby. The outer cells become thin membranes that form around the baby. The cells multiply thousands of times and move to new positions to eventually become the embryo. After approximately 8 weeks, the embryo is about the size of an adult's thumb, but almost all of its parts — the brain and nerves, the heart and blood, the stomach and intestines, and the muscles and skin — have formed. During the fetal stage, which lasts from 9 weeks after fertilization to birth, development continues as cells multiply, move, and change. The fetus floats in amniotic fluid inside the amniotic sac. The fetus receives oxygen and nourishment from the mother's blood via the placenta, a disk-like structure that sticks to the inner lining of the uterus and connects to the fetus via the umbilical cord. The amniotic fluid and membrane cushion the fetus against bumps and jolts to the mother's body. Pregnancy lasts an average of 280 days — about 9 months. When the baby is ready for birth, its head presses on the cervix, which begins to relax and widen to get ready for the baby to pass into and through the vagina. The mucus that has formed a plug in the cervix loosens, and with amniotic fluid, comes out through the vagina when the mother's water breaks. When the contractions of labor begin, the walls of the uterus contract as they are stimulated by the pituitary hormone oxytocin. The contractions cause the cervix to widen and begin to open. After several hours of this widening, the cervix is dilated enough for the baby to come through. The baby is pushed out of the uterus, through the cervix, and along the birth canal. The baby's head usually comes first; the umbilical cord comes out with the baby and is cut after the baby is delivered. The last stage of the birth process involves the delivery of the placenta, which is now called the afterbirth. After it has separated from the inner lining of the uterus, contractions of the uterus push it out, along with its membranes and fluids. Things That Can Go Wrong With the Vulva and Vagina Vulvovaginitis, an inflammation of the vulva and vagina. It may be caused by irritating substances. Poor personal hygiene may also cause this problem. Symptoms include redness and itching in the vaginal and vulvar areas and sometimes vaginal discharge. Vulvovaginitis can also be caused by an overgrowth of candida, a fungus normally present in the vagina. nonmenstrual vaginal bleeding, most commonly due to the presence of a vaginal foreign body, often wadded-up toilet paper. It may also be due to urethral prolapse, a condition in which the mucous membranes of the urethra protrude into the vagina and form a tiny, donut-shaped mass of tissue that bleeds easily. It can also be due to a straddle injury or vaginal trauma from sexual abuse. Things That Can Go Wrong With the Ovaries and Fallopian Tubes Ectopic pregnancy, when a fertilized egg, or zygote, doesn't travel into the uterus, but instead grows rapidly in the fallopian tube. Girls with this condition can develop severe abdominal pain and should see a doctor because surgery may be necessary. Endometriosis, when tissue normally found only in the uterus starts to grow outside the uterus — in the ovaries, fallopian tubes, or other parts of the pelvic cavity. It can cause abnormal bleeding, painful periods, and general pelvic pain. Ovarian tumors, although rare, can occur. Girls with ovarian tumors may have abdominal pain and masses that can be felt in the abdomen. Surgery may be needed to remove the tumor. Ovarian cysts, noncancerous sacs filled with fluid or semi-solid material. Although they are common and generally harmless, they can become a problem if they grow very large. Large cysts may push on surrounding organs, causing abdominal pain. In most cases, cysts will disappear on their own and treatment is unnecessary. If the cysts are painful, a doctor may prescribe birth control pills to alter their growth, or they may be removed by a surgeon. Polycystic Ovary Syndrome, a hormone disorder in which too many male hormones are produced by the ovaries. This condition causes the ovaries to become enlarged and develop many fluid-filled sacs, or cysts. It often first appears during the teen years. Depending on the type and severity of the condition, it may be treated with drugs to regulate hormone balance and menstruation. Menstrual Problems dysmenorrhea, when a girl has painful periods. menorrhagia, when a girl has a very heavy periods with excess bleeding. oligomenorrhea, when a girl misses or has infrequent periods, even though she's been menstruating for a while and isn't pregnant. amenorrhea, when a girl hasn't started her period by the time she is 16 years old or 3 years after starting puberty, has not developed signs of puberty by age 14, or has had normal periods but has stopped menstruating for some reason other than pregnancy. Infections of the Female Reproductive System Sexually transmitted diseases. These include infections and diseases such as pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), human papilloma virus (HPV, or genital warts), syphilis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, and genital herpes. Most are spread from one person to another by sexual intercourse. Toxic shock syndrome. This uncommon illness is caused by toxins released into the body during a type of bacterial infection that is more likely to develop if a tampon is left in too long. It can produce high fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and shock.

Male Reproductive System

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qCXG_ZfqAks Male Reproductive System: Ever wonder how the universe could allow the existence of someone as annoying as your bratty little brother or sister? The answer lies in reproduction. If people — like your parents (ew!) — didn't reproduce, families would die out and the human race would cease to exist. All living things reproduce. Reproduction — the process by which organisms make more organisms like themselves — is one of the things that set living things apart from nonliving matter. But even though the reproductive system is essential to keeping a species alive, unlike other body systems it's not essential to keeping an individual alive. In the human reproductive process, two kinds of sex cells, or gametes, are involved. The male gamete, or sperm, and the female gamete, the egg or ovum, meet in the female's reproductive system to create a new individual. Both the male and female reproductive systems are essential for reproduction. Humans, like other organisms, pass certain characteristics of themselves to the next generation through their genes, the special carriers of human traits. The genes parents pass along to their children are what make children similar to others in their family, but they are also what make each child unique. These genes come from the father's sperm and the mother's egg, which are produced by the male and female reproductive systems. What Is the Male Reproductive System? Most species have two sexes: male and female. Each sex has its own unique reproductive system. They are different in shape and structure, but both are specifically designed to produce, nourish, and transport either the egg or sperm. Unlike the female, whose sex organs are located entirely within the pelvis, the male has reproductive organs, or genitals, that are both inside and outside the pelvis. The male genitals include: the testicles the duct system, the accessory glands, & the penis. In a guy who's reached sexual maturity, the two testicles, or testes, produce and store millions of tiny sperm cells. The testicles are oval-shaped and grow to be about 2 inches in length and 1 inch in diameter. The testicles are also part of the endocrine system because they produce hormones, including testosterone. Testosterone is a major part of puberty in guys, and as a guy makes his way through puberty, his testicles produce more and more of it. Testosterone is the hormone that causes guys to develop deeper voices, bigger muscles, and body and facial hair, and it also stimulates the production of sperm. Alongside the testicles are the epididymis and the vas deferens, which make up the duct system of the male reproductive organs. The vas deferens is a muscular tube that passes upward alongside the testicles and transports the sperm-containing fluid called semen. The epididymis is a set of coiled tubes that connects to the vas deferens. The epididymis and the testicles hang in a pouch-like structure outside the pelvis called the scrotum. This bag of skin helps to regulate the temperature of testicles, which need to be kept cooler than body temperature to produce sperm. The scrotum changes size to maintain the right temperature. When the body is cold, the scrotum shrinks and becomes tighter to hold in body heat. When it's warm, the scrotum becomes larger and more floppy to get rid of extra heat. This happens without a guy ever having to think about it. The brain and the nervous system give the scrotum the cue to change size. The accessory glands, including the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland, provide fluids that lubricate the duct system and nourish the sperm. The seminal vesicles are sac-like structures attached to the vas deferens to the side of the bladder. The prostate gland, which produces some of the parts of semen, surrounds the ejaculatory ducts at the base of the urethra, just below the bladder. The urethra is the channel that carries the semen to the outside of the body through the penis. The urethra is also part of the urinary system because it is also the channel through which urine passes as it leaves the bladder and exits the body. The penis is actually made up of two parts: the shaft and the glans. The shaft is the main part of the penis and the glans is the tip. At the end of the glans is a small slit or opening, which is where semen and urine exit the body through the urethra. The inside of the penis is made of a spongy tissue that can expand and contract. All boys are born with a foreskin, a fold of skin at the end of the penis covering the glans. Some boys have a circumcision, which means that a doctor or clergy member cuts away the foreskin. Circumcision is usually performed during a baby boy's first few days of life. Although circumcision is not medically necessary, parents who choose to have their children circumcised often do so based on religious beliefs, concerns about hygiene, or cultural or social reasons. Boys who have circumcised penises and those who don't are no different: All penises work and feel the same, regardless of whether the foreskin has been removed. What Does the Male Reproductive System Do? The male sex organs work together to produce and release semen into the reproductive system of the female during sexual intercourse. The male reproductive system also produces sex hormones, which help a boy develop into a sexually mature man during puberty. When a baby boy is born, he has all the parts of his reproductive system in place, but it isn't until puberty that he is able to reproduce. When puberty begins, usually between the ages of 10 and 14, the pituitary gland — which is located near the brain — secretes hormones that stimulate the testicles to produce testosterone. The production of testosterone brings about many physical changes. Although the timing of these changes is different for every guy, the stages of puberty generally follow a set sequence. During the first stage of male puberty, the scrotum and testes grow larger. Next, the penis becomes longer, and the seminal vesicles and prostate gland grow. Hair begins to appear in the pubic area and later it grows on the face and underarms. During this time, a male's voice also deepens. Boys also undergo a growth spurt during puberty as they reach their adult height and weight. Once a guy has reached puberty, he will produce millions of sperm cells every day. Each sperm is extremely small: only 1/600 of an inch. Sperm develop in the testicles within a system of tiny tubes called the seminiferous tubules. At birth, these tubules contain simple round cells, but during puberty, testosterone and other hormones cause these cells to transform into sperm cells. The cells divide and change until they have a head and short tail, like tadpoles. The head contains genetic material. The sperm use their tails to push themselves into the epididymis, where they complete their development. It takes sperm about 4 to 6 weeks to travel through the epididymis. The sperm then move to the vas deferens, or sperm duct. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland produce a whitish fluid called seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to form semen when a male is sexually stimulated. The penis, which usually hangs limp, becomes hard when a male is sexually excited. Tissues in the penis fill with blood and it becomes stiff and erect. The rigidity of the erect penis makes it easier to insert into the female's vagina during sexual intercourse. When the erect penis is stimulated, muscles around the reproductive organs contract and force the semen through the duct system and urethra. Semen is pushed out of the male's body through his urethra — this process is called ejaculation. Each time a guy ejaculates, it can contain up to 500 million sperm. When the male ejaculates during intercourse, semen is deposited into the female's vagina. From the vagina the sperm make their way up through the cervix and move through the uterus with help from uterine contractions. If a mature egg is in one of the female's fallopian tubes, a single sperm may penetrate it, and fertilization, or conception, occurs. This fertilized egg is now called a zygote and contains 46 chromosomes — half from the egg and half from the sperm. The genetic material from the male and female has combined so that a new individual can be created. The zygote divides again and again as it grows in the female's uterus, maturing over the course of the pregnancy into an embryo, a fetus, and finally a newborn baby. Things That Can Go Wrong With the Male Reproductive System Guys may sometimes experience reproductive system problems. Testicular Injury. Even a mild injury to the testicles can cause severe pain, bruising, or swelling. Most testicular injuries occur when the testicles are struck, hit, kicked, or crushed, usually during sports or due to other trauma. Testicular torsion, when one of the testicles twists around, cutting off its blood supply, is also a problem that some teen guys experience — although it's not common. Varicocele. This is a varicose vein (an abnormally swollen vein) in the network of veins that run from the testicles. Varicoceles commonly develop while a guy is going through puberty. A varicocele is usually not harmful, although in some people it may damage the testicle or decrease sperm production, so it helps for a guy to see his doctor if he's concerned about changes in his testicles. Testicular Cancer. One of the most common cancers in men younger than 40. It occurs when cells in the testicle divide abnormally and form a tumor. Testicular cancer can spread to other parts of the body, but if it's detected early, the cure rate is excellent. All guys should perform testicular self-examinations regularly to help with early detection. Epididymitis is inflammation of the epididymis, the coiled tubes that connect the testes with the vas deferens. It is usually caused by an infection, such as the sexually transmitted disease chlamydia, and results in pain and swelling next to one of the testicles. Hydrocele. A hydrocele occurs when fluid collects in the membranes surrounding the testes. Hydroceles may cause swelling in the scrotum around the testicle but are generally painless. In some cases, surgery may be needed to correct the condition. Inguinal hernia. When a portion of the intestines pushes through an abnormal opening or weakening of the abdominal wall and into the groin or scrotum, it is known as an inguinal hernia. The hernia may look like a bulge or swelling in the groin area. It can be corrected with surgery. Disorders of the Penis Inflammation of the penis. Symptoms of penile inflammation include redness, itching, swelling, and pain. Balanitis occurs when the glans (the head of the penis) becomes inflamed. Posthitis is foreskin inflammation, which is usually due to a yeast or bacterial infection. Hypospadius is a disorder in which the urethra opens on the underside of the penis, not at the tip.

Endocrine System

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7m5SDb_1ME8 Although we rarely think about them, the glands of the endocrine system and the hormones they release influence almost every cell, organ, and function of our bodies. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as sexual function and reproductive processes. In general, the endocrine system is in charge of body processes that happen slowly, such as cell growth. Faster processes like breathing and body movement are controlled by the nervous system. But even though the nervous system and endocrine system are separate systems, they often work together to help the body function properly. About the Endocrine System The foundations of the endocrine system are the hormones and glands. As the body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to another. Although many different hormones circulate throughout the bloodstream, each one affects only the cells that are genetically programmed to receive and respond to its message. Hormone levels can be influenced by factors such as stress, infection, and changes in the balance of fluid and minerals in blood. A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. Some types of glands release their secretions in specific areas. For instance, exocrine glands, such as the sweat and salivary glands, release secretions in the skin or inside of the mouth. Endocrine glands, on the other hand, release more than 20 major hormones directly into the bloodstream where they can be transported to cells in other parts of the body. The major glands that make up the human endocrine system are the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal body, and the reproductive glands, which include the ovaries and testes. The pancreas is also part of this hormone-secreting system, even though it is also associated with the digestive system because it also produces and secretes digestive enzymes. Although the endocrine glands are the body's main hormone producers, some non-endocrine organs — such as the brain, heart, lungs, kidneys, liver, thymus, skin, and placenta — also produce and release hormones. The hypothalamus, a collection of specialized cells that is located in the lower central part of the brain, is the primary link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions from the pituitary. Although it is no bigger than a pea, the pituitary gland, located at the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus, is considered the most important part of the endocrine system. It's often called the "master gland" because it makes hormones that control several other endocrine glands. The production and secretion of pituitary hormones can be influenced by factors such as emotions and seasonal changes. To accomplish this, the hypothalamus relays information sensed by the brain (such as environmental temperature, light exposure patterns, and feelings) to the pituitary. The tiny pituitary is divided into two parts: the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The anterior lobe regulates the activity of the thyroid, adrenals, and reproductive glands. Among the hormones it produces are: growth hormone, which stimulates the growth of bone and other body tissues and plays a role in the body's handling of nutrients and minerals. prolactin, which activates milk production in women who are breastfeeding. thyrotropin, which stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. corticotropin, which stimulates the adrenal gland to produce certain hormones The pituitary also secretes endorphins, chemicals that act on the nervous system to reduce sensitivity to pain. In addition, the pituitary secretes hormones that signal the ovaries and testes to make sex hormones. The pituitary gland also controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in women. The posterior lobe of the pituitary releases antidiuretic hormone, which helps control body water balance through its effect on the kidneys and urine output; and oxytocin, which triggers the contractions of the uterus that occur during labor. The thyroid, located in the front part of the lower neck, is shaped like a bowtie or butterfly and produces the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine. These hormones control the rate at which cells burn fuels from food to produce energy. As the level of thyroid hormones increases in the bloodstream, so does the speed at which chemical reactions occur in the body. Thyroid hormones also play a key role in bone growth and the development of the brain and nervous system in children. The production and release of thyroid hormones is controlled by thyrotropin, which is secreted by the pituitary gland. Attached to the thyroid are four tiny glands that function together called the parathyroids. They release parathyroid hormone, which regulates the level of calcium in the blood with the help of calcitonin, which is produced in the thyroid. The body has two triangular adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands have two parts, each of which produces a set of hormones and has a different function. The outer part, the adrenal cortex, produces hormones called corticosteroids that influence or regulate salt and water balance in the body, the body's response to stress, metabolism, the immune system, and sexual development and function. The inner part, the adrenal medulla, produces catecholamines, such as epinephrine. Also called adrenaline, epinephrine increases blood pressure and heart rate when the body experiences stress. The pineal body, also called the pineal gland, is located in the middle of the brain. It secretes melatonin, a hormone that may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle. The gonads are the main source of sex hormones. In males, they are located in the scrotum. Male gonads, or testes, secrete hormones called androgens, the most important of which is testosterone. These hormones regulate body changes associated with sexual development, including enlargement of the penis, the growth spurt that occurs during puberty, and the appearance of other male secondary sex characteristics such as deepening of the voice, growth of facial and pubic hair, and the increase in muscle growth and strength. Working with hormones from the pituitary gland, testosterone also supports the production of sperm by the testes. The female gonads, the ovaries, are located in the pelvis. They produce eggs and secrete the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen is involved in the development of female sexual features such as breast growth, the accumulation of body fat around the hips and thighs, and the growth spurt that occurs during puberty. Both estrogen and progesterone are also involved in pregnancy and the regulation of the menstrual cycle. The pancreas produces two important hormones, insulin and glucagon. They work together to maintain a steady level of glucose, or sugar, in the blood and to keep the body supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores of energy. What the Endocrine System Does Once a hormone is secreted, it travels from the endocrine gland through the bloodstream to target cells designed to receive its message. Along the way to the target cells, special proteins bind to some of the hormones. The special proteins act as carriers that control the amount of hormone that is available to interact with and affect the target cells. Also, the target cells have receptors that latch onto only specific hormones, and each hormone has its own receptor, so that each hormone will communicate only with specific target cells that possess receptors for that hormone. When the hormone reaches its target cell, it locks onto the cell's specific receptors and these hormone-receptor combinations transmit chemical instructions to the inner workings of the cell. When hormone levels reach a certain normal or necessary amount, further secretion is controlled by important body mechanisms to maintain that level of hormone in the blood. This regulation of hormone secretion may involve the hormone itself or another substance in the blood related to the hormone. For example, if the thyroid gland has secreted adequate amounts of thyroid hormones into the blood, the pituitary gland senses the normal levels of thyroid hormone in the bloodstream and adjusts its release of thyrotropin, the pituitary hormone that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. Another example is parathyroid hormone, which increases the level of calcium in the blood. When the blood calcium level rises, the parathyroid glands sense the change and decrease their secretion of parathyroid hormone. This turnoff process is called a negative feedback system. Problems With the Endocrine System Too much or too little of any hormone can be harmful to the body. For example, if the pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone, a child may grow excessively tall. If it produces too little, a child may be abnormally short. Controlling the production of or replacing specific hormones can treat many endocrine disorders in children and adolescents, some of which include: Adrenal insufficiency. This condition is characterized by decreased function of the adrenal cortex and the consequent underproduction of adrenal corticosteroid hormones. The symptoms of adrenal insufficiency may include weakness, fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea, dehydration, and skin changes. Doctors treat adrenal insufficiency by giving replacement corticosteroid hormones. Cushing syndrome. Excessive amounts of glucocorticoid hormones in the body can lead to Cushing syndrome. In children, it most often results when a child takes large doses of synthetic corticosteroid drugs (such as prednisone) to treat autoimmune diseases such as lupus. If the condition is due to a tumor in the pituitary gland that produces excessive amounts of corticotropin and stimulates the adrenals to overproduce corticosteroids, it's known as Cushing disease. Symptoms may take years to develop and include obesity, growth failure, muscle weakness, easy bruising of the skin, acne, high blood pressure, and psychological changes. Depending on the specific cause, doctors may treat this condition with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or drugs that block the production of hormones. Type 1 diabetes. When the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin, type 1 diabetes (previously known as juvenile diabetes) occurs. Symptoms include excessive thirst, hunger, urination, and weight loss. In children and teens, the condition is usually an autoimmune disorder in which specific immune system cells and antibodies produced by the immune system attack and destroy the cells of the pancreas that produce insulin. The disease can cause long-term complications including kidney problems, nerve damage, blindness, and early coronary heart disease and stroke. To control their blood sugar levels and reduce the risk of developing diabetes complications, kids with this condition need regular injections of insulin. Type 2 diabetes. Unlike type 1 diabetes, in which the body can't produce normal amounts of insulin, in type 2 diabetes the body is unable to respond to insulin normally. Children and teens with the condition tend to be overweight, and it is believed that excess body fat plays a role in the insulin resistance that characterizes the disease. In fact, the rising prevalence of this type of diabetes in kids has paralleled the dramatically increasing rates of obesity among kids in recent years. The symptoms and possible complications of type 2 diabetes are basically the same as those of type 1. Some kids and teens can control their blood sugar level with dietary changes, exercise, and oral medications, but many will need to take insulin injections like patients with type 1 diabetes. Growth hormone problems. Too much growth hormone in children who are still growing will make their bones and other body parts grow excessively, resulting in gigantism. This rare condition is usually caused by a pituitary tumor and can be treated by removing the tumor. In contrast, when the pituitary gland fails to produce adequate amounts of growth hormone, a child's growth in height is impaired. Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar) may also occur in kids with growth hormone deficiency, particularly in infants and young children with the condition. Hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism is a condition in which the levels of thyroid hormones in the blood are excessively high. Symptoms may include weight loss, nervousness, tremors, excessive sweating, increased heart rate and blood pressure, protruding eyes, and a swelling in the neck from an enlarged thyroid gland (goiter). In kids the condition is usually caused by Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder in which specific antibodies produced by the immune system stimulate the thyroid gland to become overactive. The disease may be controlled with medications or by removal or destruction of the thyroid gland through surgery or radiation treatments. Hypothyroidism. Hypothyroidism is a condition in which the levels of thyroid hormones in the blood are abnormally low. Thyroid hormone deficiency slows body processes and may lead to fatigue, a slow heart rate, dry skin, weight gain, constipation, and, in kids, slowing of growth and delayed puberty. Hashimoto's thyroiditis, which results from an autoimmune process that damages the thyroid and blocks thyroid hormone production, is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in kids. Infants can also be born with an absent or underdeveloped thyroid gland, resulting in hypothyroidism. It can be treated with oral thyroid hormone replacement. Precocious Puberty. Body changes associated with puberty may occur at an abnormally young age in some kids if the pituitary hormones that stimulate the gonads to produce sex hormones rise prematurely. An injectable medication is available that can suppress the secretion of these pituitary hormones (known as gonadotropins) and arrest the progression of sexual development in most of these children.

Digestive and Urinary Systems

Digestive System: So there you are, sitting at lunch, enjoying some grilled chicken pizza and a few orange wedges. When you're finished, you take a last drink of milk, wipe your mouth, and head to your next class. In a few minutes you're thinking about the capital of Oregon or your science fair project. You've completely forgotten about that pizza lunch you just ate. But it's still in your stomach — sort of like a science experiment that happens all the time! The Mouth Starts Everything Moving Your digestive system started working even before you took the first bite of your pizza. And the digestive system will be busy at work on your chewed-up lunch for the next few hours — or sometimes days, depending upon what you've eaten. This process, called digestion, allows your body to get the nutrients and energy it needs from the food you eat. So let's find out what's happening to that pizza, orange, and milk. Even before you eat, when you smell a tasty food, see it, or think about it, digestion begins. Saliva, or spit, begins to form in your mouth. When you do eat, the saliva breaks down the chemicals in the food a bit, which helps make the food mushy and easy to swallow. Your tongue helps out, pushing the food around while you chew with your teeth. When you're ready to swallow, the tongue pushes a tiny bit of mushed-up food called a bolus toward the back of your throat and into the opening of your esophagus, the second part of the digestive tract. On the Way Down The esophagus is like a stretchy pipe that's about 10 inches long. It moves food from the back of your throat to your stomach. But also at the back of your throat is your windpipe, which allows air to come in and out of your body. When you swallow a small ball of mushed-up food or liquids, a special flap called the epiglottis flops down over the opening of your windpipe to make sure the food enters the esophagus and not the windpipe. If you've ever drunk something too fast, started to cough, and heard someone say that your drink "went down the wrong way," the person meant that it went down your windpipe by mistake. This happens when the epiglottis doesn't have enough time to flop down, and you cough involuntarily to clear your windpipe. Once food has entered the esophagus, it doesn't just drop right into your stomach. Instead, muscles in the walls of the esophagus move in a wavy way to slowly squeeze the food through the esophagus. This takes about 2 or 3 seconds. See You in the Stomach Your stomach, which is attached to the end of the esophagus, is a stretchy sack shaped like the letter J. It has three important jobs: to store the food you've eaten to break down the food into a liquidy mixture to slowly empty that liquidy mixture into the small intestine The stomach is like a mixer, churning and mashing together all the small balls of food that came down the esophagus into smaller and smaller pieces. It does this with help from the strong muscles in the walls of the stomach and gastric juices that also come from the stomach's walls. In addition to breaking down food, gastric juices also help kill bacteria that might be in the eaten food. Onward to the small intestine! The small intestine is a long tube that's about 1½ inches to 2 inches around, and it's packed inside you beneath your stomach. If you stretched out an adult's small intestine, it would be about 22 feet long — that's like 22 notebooks lined up end to end, all in a row! The small intestine breaks down the food mixture even more so your body can absorb all the vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The chicken on your pizza is full of proteins — and a little fat — and the small intestine can help extract them with a little help from three friends: the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. Those organs send different juices to the first part of the small intestine. These juices help to digest food and allow the body to absorb nutrients. The pancreas makes juices that help the body digest fats and protein. A juice from the liver called bile helps to absorb fats into the bloodstream. And the gallbladder serves as a warehouse for bile, storing it until the body needs it. Your food may spend as long as 4 hours in the small intestine and will become a very thin, watery mixture. It's time well spent because, at the end of the journey, the nutrients from your pizza, orange, and milk can pass from the intestine into the blood. Once in the blood, your body is closer to benefiting from the complex carbohydrates in the pizza crust, the vitamin C in your orange, the protein in the chicken, and the calcium in your milk. Next stop for these nutrients: the liver! And the leftover waste — remnants of the food that your body can't use — goes on to the large intestine. Love Your Liver The nutrient-rich blood comes directly to the liver for processing. The liver filters out harmful substances or wastes, turning some of the waste into more bile. The liver even helps figure out how many nutrients will go to the rest of the body, and how many will stay behind in storage. For example, the liver stores certain vitamins and a type of sugar your body uses for energ That's One Large Intestine At 3 or 4 inches around, the large intestine is fatter than the small intestine and it's almost the last stop on the digestive tract. Like the small intestine, it is packed into the body, and would measure 5 feet long if you spread it out. The large intestine has a tiny tube with a closed end coming off it called the appendix. It's part of the digestive tract, but it doesn't seem to do anything, though it can cause big problems because it sometimes gets infected and needs to be removed. Like we mentioned, after most of the nutrients are removed from the food mixture there is waste left over — stuff your body can't use. This stuff needs to be passed out of the body. Can you guess where it ends up? Well, here's a hint: It goes out with a flush. Before it goes, it passes through the part of the large intestine called the colon, which is where the body gets its last chance to absorb the water and some minerals into the blood. As the water leaves the waste product, what's left gets harder and harder as it keeps moving along, until it becomes a solid. Yep, it's poop (also called stool or a bowel movement). The large intestine pushes the poop into the rectum, the very last stop on the digestive tract. The solid waste stays here until you are ready to go to the bathroom. When you go to the bathroom, you are getting rid of this solid waste by pushing it through the anus (say: ay-nus). There's the flush we were talking about! Dig That Digestive System You can help your digestive system by drinking water and eating a healthy diet that includes foods rich in fiber. High-fiber foods, like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, make it easier for poop to pass through your system. The digestive system is a pretty important part of your body. Without it, you couldn't get the nutrients you need to grow properly and stay healthy. And next time you sit down to lunch, you'll know where your food goes — from start to finish! Urinary System:

http://library.thinkquest.org/5777/urin1.htm

The organs, tubes, muscles, and nerves that work together to create, store, and carry urine are the urinary system. The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles, and the urethra.

How does the urinary system work? Your body takes nutrients from food and uses them to maintain all bodily functions including energy and self-repair. After your body has taken what it needs from the food, waste products are left behind in the blood and in the bowel. The urinary system works with the lungs, skin, and intestines—all of which also excrete wastes—to keep the chemicals and water in your body balanced. Adults eliminate about a quart and a half of urine each day. The amount depends on many factors, especially the amounts of fluid and food a person consumes and how much fluid is lost through sweat and breathing. Certain types of medications can also affect the amount of urine eliminated. The urinary system removes a type of waste called urea from your blood. Urea is produced when foods containing protein, such as meat, poultry, and certain vegetables, are broken down in the body. Urea is carried in the bloodstream to the kidneys. The kidneys are bean-shaped organs about the size of your fists. They are near the middle of the back, just below the rib cage. The kidneys remove urea from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus, and a small tube called a renal tubule. Urea, together with water and other waste substances, forms the urine as it passes through the nephrons and down the renal tubules of the kidney. From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to the bladder. The ureters are about 8 to 10 inches long. Muscles in the ureter walls constantly tighten and relax to force urine downward away from the kidneys. If urine is allowed to stand still, or back up, a kidney infection can develop. Small amounts of urine are emptied into the bladder from the ureters about every 10 to 15 seconds. The bladder is a hollow muscular organ shaped like a balloon. It sits in your pelvis and is held in place by ligaments attached to other organs and the pelvic bones. The bladder stores urine until you are ready to go to the bathroom to empty it. It swells into a round shape when it is full and gets smaller when empty. If the urinary system is healthy, the bladder can hold up to 16 ounces (2 cups) of urine comfortably for 2 to 5 hours. Circular muscles called sphincters help keep urine from leaking. The sphincter muscles close tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder into the urethra, the tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. Nerves in the bladder tell you when it is time to urinate, or empty your bladder. As the bladder first fills with urine, you may notice a feeling that you need to urinate. The sensation to urinate becomes stronger as the bladder continues to fill and reaches its limit. At that point, nerves from the bladder send a message to the brain that the bladder is full, and your urge to empty your bladder intensifies. When you urinate, the brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, squeezing urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax. As these muscles relax, urine exits the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs. What causes problems in the urinary system? Problems in the urinary system can be caused by aging, illness, or injury. As you get older, changes in the kidneys’ structure cause them to lose some of their ability to remove wastes from the blood. Also, the muscles in your ureters, bladder, and urethra tend to lose some of their strength. You may have more urinary infections because the bladder muscles do not tighten enough to empty your bladder completely. A decrease in strength of muscles of the sphincters and the pelvis can also cause incontinence, the unwanted leakage of urine. Illness or injury can also prevent the kidneys from filtering the blood completely or block the passage of urine. How are problems in the urinary system detected? Urinalysis is a test that studies the content of urine for abnormal substances such as protein or signs of infection. This test involves urinating into a special container and leaving the sample to be studied. Urodynamic tests evaluate the storage of urine in the bladder and the flow of urine from the bladder through the urethra. Your doctor may want to do a urodynamic test if you are having symptoms that suggest problems with the muscles or nerves of your lower urinary system and pelvis—ureters, bladder, urethra, and sphincter muscles. Urodynamic tests measure the contraction of the bladder muscle as it fills and empties. The test is done by inserting a small tube called a catheter through your urethra into your bladder to fill it either with water or a gas. Another small tube is inserted into your rectum or vagina to measure the pressure put on your bladder when you strain or cough. Other bladder tests use x-ray dye instead of water so that x-ray pictures can be taken when the bladder fills and empties to detect any abnormalities in the shape and function of the bladder. These tests take about an hour. What are some disorders of the urinary system? Disorders of the urinary system range in severity from easy to treat to life threatening. Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a condition in men that affects the prostate gland, which is part of the male reproductive system. The prostate is located at the bottom of the bladder and surrounds the urethra. BPH is an enlargement of the prostate gland that can interfere with urinary function in older men. It causes blockage by squeezing the urethra, which can make it difficult to urinate. Men with BPH frequently have other bladder symptoms including an increase in frequency of bladder emptying both during the day and at night. Most men over age 60 have some BPH, but not all have problems with blockage. There are many different treatment options for BPH. Painful bladder syndrome/Interstitial cystitis (PBS/IC) is a chronic bladder disorder also known as frequency-urgency-dysuria syndrome. In this disorder, the bladder wall can become inflamed and irritated. The inflammation can lead to scarring and stiffening of the bladder, decreased bladder capacity, pinpoint bleeding, and, in rare cases, ulcers in the bladder lining. The cause of IC is unknown at this time. Kidney stones is the term commonly used to refer to stones, or calculi, in the urinary system. Stones form in the kidneys and may be found anywhere in the urinary system. They vary in size. Some stones cause great pain while others cause very little. The aim of treatment is to remove the stones, prevent infection, and prevent recurrence. Both nonsurgical and surgical treatments are used. Kidney stones affect men more often than women. Prostatitis is inflammation of the prostate gland that results in urinary frequency and urgency, burning or painful urination, a condition called dysuria, and pain in the lower back and genital area, among other symptoms. In some cases, prostatitis is caused by bacterial infection and can be treated with antibiotics. But the more common forms of prostatitis are not associated with any known infecting organism. Antibiotics are often ineffective in treating the nonbacterial forms of prostatitis. Proteinuria is the presence of abnormal amounts of protein in the urine. Healthy kidneys take wastes out of the blood but leave in protein. Protein in the urine does not cause a problem by itself. But it may be a sign that your kidneys are not working properly. Renal (kidney) failure results when the kidneys are not able to regulate water and chemicals in the body or remove waste products from your blood. Acute renal failure (ARF) is the sudden onset of kidney failure. This condition can be caused by an accident that injures the kidneys, loss of a lot of blood, or some drugs or poisons. ARF may lead to permanent loss of kidney function. But if the kidneys are not seriously damaged, they may recover. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the gradual reduction of kidney function that may lead to permanent kidney failure, or end-stage renal disease (ESRD). You may go several years without knowing you have CKD. Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are caused by bacteria in the urinary tract. Women get UTIs more often than men. UTIs are treated with antibiotics. Drinking lots of fluids also helps by flushing out the bacteria. The name of the UTI depends on its location in the urinary tract. An infection in the bladder is called cystitis. If the infection is in one or both of the kidneys, the infection is called pyelonephritis. This type of UTI can cause serious damage to the kidneys if it is not adequately treated. Urinary incontinence, loss of bladder control, is the involuntary passage of urine. There are many causes and types of incontinence, and many treatment options. Treatments range from simple exercises to surgery. Women are affected by urinary incontinence more often than men. Urinary retention, or bladder-emptying problems, is a common urological problem with many possible causes. Normally, urination can be initiated voluntarily and the bladder empties completely. Urinary retention is the abnormal holding of urine in the bladder. Acute urinary retention is the sudden inability to urinate, causing pain and discomfort. Causes can include an obstruction in the urinary system, stress, or neurologic problems. Chronic urinary retention refers to the persistent presence of urine left in the bladder after incomplete emptying. Common causes of chronic urinary retention are bladder muscle failure, nerve damage, or obstructions in the urinary tract. Treatment for urinary retention depends on the cause. Who can help me with a urinary problem? Your primary doctor can help you with some urinary problems. Your pediatrician may be able to treat some of your child’s urinary problems. But some problems may require the attention of a urologist, a doctor who specializes in treating problems of the urinary system and the male reproductive system. A gynecologist is a doctor who specializes in the female reproductive system and may be able to help with some urinary problems. A urogynecologist is a gynecologist who specializes in the female urinary system. A nephrologist specializes in treating diseases of the kidney. Points to Remember Your urinary system filters waste and extra fluid from your blood. Problems in the urinary system include kidney failure, urinary tract infections, kidney stones, prostate enlargement, and bladder control problems. Health professionals who treat urinary problems include general practitioners (your primary doctor), pediatricians, urologists, gynecologists, urogynecologists, and nephrologists.

The principal function of the urinary system is to maintain the volume and composition of body fluids within normal limits. One aspect of this function is to rid the body of waste products that accumulate as a result of cellular metabolism. Other aspects of its function include regulating the concentrations of various electrolytes in the body fluids and maintaining normal pH of the blood. In addition to maintaining fluid homeostasis in the body, the urinary system controls red blood cell production by secreting the hormone erythropoietin. The urinary system also plays a role in maintaining normal blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin. The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys form the urine and account for the other functions attributed to the urinary system. The ureters carry the urine away from kidneys to the urinary bladder, which is a temporary reservoir for the urine. The urethra is a tubular structure that carries the urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. Kidneys The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system. The kidneys are the organs that filter the blood, remove the wastes, and excrete the wastes in the urine. They are the organs that perform the functions of the urinary system. The other components are accessory structures to eliminate the urine from the body. The paired kidneys are located between the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae, one on each side of the vertebral column. The right kidney usually is slightly lower than the left because the liver displaces it downward. The kidneys protected by the lower ribs, lie in shallow depressions against the posterior abdominal wall and behind the parietal peritoneum. This means they are retroperitoneal. Each kidney is held in place by connective tissue, called renal fascia, and is surrounded by a thick layer of adipose tissue, called perirenal fat, which helps to protect it. A tough, fibrous, connective tissue renal capsule closely envelopes each kidney and provides support for the soft tissue that is inside. In the adult, each kidney is approximately 3 cm thick, 6 cm wide, and 12 cm long. It is roughly bean-shaped with an indentation, called the hilum, on the medial side. The hilum leads to a large cavity, called the renal sinus, within the kidney. The ureter and renal vein leave the kidney, and the renal artery enters the kidney at the hilum. The outer, reddish region, next to the capsule, is the renal cortex. This surrounds a darker reddish-brown region called the renal medulla. The renal medulla consists of a series of renal pyramids, which appear striated because they contain straight tubular structures and blood vessels. The wide bases of the pyramids are adjacent to the cortex and the pointed ends, called renal papillae, are directed toward the center of the kidney. Portions of the renal cortex extend into the spaces between adjacent pyramids to form renal columns. The cortex and medulla make up the parenchyma, or functional tissue, of the kidney. The central region of the kidney contains the renal pelvis, which is located in the renal sinus and is continuous with the ureter. The renal pelvis is a large cavity that collects the urine as it is produced. The periphery of the renal pelvis is interrupted by cuplike projections called calyces. A minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid and collects urine from that pyramid. Several minor calyces converge to form a major calyx. From the major calyces the urine flows into the renal pelvis and from there into the ureter. Each kidney contains over a million functional units, called nephrons, in the parenchyma (cortex and medulla). A nephron has two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a cluster of capillaries, called the glomerulus, surrounded by a double-layered epithelial cup, called the glomerular capsule. An afferent arteriole leads into the renal corpuscle and an efferent arteriole leaves the renal corpuscle. Urine passes from the nephrons into collecting ducts then into the minor calyces. The juxtaglomerular apparatus, which monitors blood pressure and secretes renin, is formed from modified cells in the afferent arteriole and the ascending limb of the nephron loop. Ureter Each ureter is a small tube, about 25 cm long, that carries urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder. It descends from the renal pelvis, along the posterior abdominal wall, behind the parietal peritoneum, and enters the urinary bladder on the posterior inferior surface. The wall of the ureter consists of three layers. The outer layer, the fibrous coat, is a supporting layer of fibrous connective tissue. The middle layer, the muscular coat, consists of inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth muscle. The main function of this layer is peristalsis to propel the urine. The inner layer, the mucosa, is transitional epithelium that is continuous with the lining of the renal pelvis and the urinary bladder. This layer secretes mucus which coats and protects the surface of the cells. Urinary Bladder The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine. It is located in the pelvic cavity, posterior to the symphysis pubis, and below the parietal peritoneum. The size and shape of the urinary bladder varies with the amount of urine it contains and with pressure it receives from surrounding organs. The inner lining of the urinary bladder is a mucous membrane of transitional epithelium that is continuous with that in the ureters. When the bladder is empty, the mucosa has numerous folds called rugae. The rugae and transitional epithelium allow the bladder to expand as it fills. The second layer in the walls is the submucosa that supports the mucous membrane. It is composed of connective tissue with elastic fibers. The next layer is the muscularis, which is composed of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle fibers are interwoven in all directions and collectively these are called the detrusor muscle. Contraction of this muscle expels urine from the bladder. On the superior surface, the outer layer of the bladder wall is parietal peritoneum. In all other regions, the outer layer is fibrous connective tissue. There is a triangular area, called the trigone, formed by three openings in the floor of the urinary bladder. Two of the openings are from the ureters and form the base of the trigone. Small flaps of mucosa cover these openings and act as valves that allow urine to enter the bladder but prevent it from backing up from the bladder into the ureters. The third opening, at the apex of the trigone, is the opening into the urethra. A band of the detrusor muscle encircles this opening to form the internal urethral sphincter. Urethra The final passageway for the flow of urine is the urethra, a thin-walled tube that conveys urine from the floor of the urinary bladder to the outside. The opening to the outside is the external urethral orifice. The mucosal lining of the urethra is transitional epithelium. The wall also contains smooth muscle fibers and is supported by connective tissue. The internal urethral sphincter surrounds the beginning of the urethra, where it leaves the urinary bladder. This sphincter is smooth (involuntary) muscle. Another sphincter, the external urethral sphincter, is skeletal (voluntary) muscle and encircles the urethra where it goes through the pelvic floor. These two sphincters control the flow of urine through the urethra. In females, the urethra is short, only 3 to 4 cm long. The external urethral orifice opens to the outside just anterior to the opening for the vagina. In males, the urethra is much longer, about 20 cm in length, and transports both urine and semen. The first part, next to the urinary bladder, passes through the prostate gland and is called the prostatic urethra. The second part, a short region that penetrates the pelvic floor and enters the penis, is called the membranous urethra. The third part, the spongy urethra, is the longest region. This portion of the urethra extends the entire length of the penis, and the external urethral orifice opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.

Cardiovascular System

Functions of the Cardiovascular System: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UztBWnRY8l0 Knowing the functions of the cardiovascular system and the parts of the body that are part of it are critical in understanding the physiology of the human body. The cardiovascular system is the system that keeps life pumping through you with its complex pathways of veins, arteries, and capillaries. The heart, blood vessels, and blood help to transport vital nutrients throughout the body as well as remove metabolic waste. They help to protect the body and regulate body temperature.

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood. This system has three main functions: Transport of nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removal of metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes, and heat). Protection of the body by white blood cells, antibodies, and complement proteins that circulate in the blood and defend the body against foreign microbes and toxins. Clotting mechanisms are also present that protect the body from blood loss after injuries. Regulation of body temperature, fluid pH, and water content of cells.

The structure of the Cardiovascular System: Embryologically the heart, like the rest of the cardiovascular system, develops from a tubular channel. Its basic organization of tissues is divided into three layers called endocardium, myocardium and epicardium, corresponding roughly to the tunicas intima, media and adventitia, respectively, of the blood vessels. As in blood vessels, the lining is endothelium and the remaining tissues are muscle, connective tissue nerves and blood vessels. The endocardial layer is thin and consists of endothelium on the surface with underlying collagenous and elastic tissue. The myocardium is the thickest layer and consists of cardiac muscle with intervening connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves. Between the endocardium and myocardium is the subendocardial layer, where nerves and the impulse-conducting system (Purkinje fibers) are located in a bed of connective tissue. The epicardium or outer layer consists of connective tissue with a large amount of adipose tissue covered on its outer edge by a mesothelium which lines the pericardial cavity. Coronary vessels and nerves are present in the epicardium. Look for groups of larger, paler-staining Purkinje fibers located between the main mass of myocardium and the endocardium. These are conducting fibers in the subendocardial layer. The Purkinje fibers are modified cardiac muscle fibers and have an accumulation of glycogen in the central portions of the cell. The myofibrils are pushed to peripheral locations, leaving a pale "empty" center around the nucleus since the glycogen is lost during sample preparation. Under high magnification, examine the endocardium. The endothelium is not readily visible over the entire endocardial surface because of damage, but a few flattened nuclei may be located. The endocardial layer also contains collagenous and elastic fibers. The extent of the heart skeleton at the base of the aortic valve. It is thickest at the base of the valve and extends as a collar along the initial part of the aorta. The alternating light and dark staining stripes are a sectioning artifact reflecting the fact that this is a relatively hard structure. Endothelium extends over the surface of the valve, covering both surfaces and continues on to form the lining of the aorta. The elastic fibers are more numerous on the ventricular side of the valve, the side which expands most when the valve is closed and blood in the aorta exerts backward pressure. Their elastic recoil helps to open the valve. The collagenous fibers, with more tensile strength, are on the aortic or "holding" side of the valve. the heart The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist with two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline. The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is lined with the parietal layers of a serous membrane. The visceral layer of the serous membrane forms the epicardium. Layers of the Heart Wall Three layers of tissue form the heart wall. The outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, the middle layer is the myocardium, and the inner layer is the endocardium. Chambers of the Heart The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers: Right atrium Right ventricle Left atrium Left ventricle The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart. Differences in thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of myocardium present, which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to generate. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins; the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins. Valves of the Heart Pumps need a set of valves to keep the fluid flowing in one direction and the heart is no exception. The heart has two types of valves that keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. The valves between the atria and ventricles are called atrioventricular valves (also called cuspid valves), while those at the bases of the large vessels leaving the ventricles are called semilunar valves. The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the bicuspid, or mitral, valve. The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve. The valve between the left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic semilunar valve. When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. When the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles. Pathway of Blood through the Heart While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and then through the left side, it is important to realize that both atria contract at the same time and both ventricles contract at the same time. The heart works as two pumps, one on the right and one on the left, working simultaneously. Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and then is pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation. Blood Supply to the Myocardium The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients to function with efficiency. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive network of blood vessels to bring oxygen to the contracting cells and to remove waste products. The right and left coronary arteries, branches of the ascending aorta, supply blood to the walls of the myocardium. After blood passes through the capillaries in the myocardium, it enters a system of cardiac (coronary) veins. Most of the cardiac veins drain into the coronary sinus, which opens into the right atrium. Blood Vessels: The structure of the various blood vessels is closely related to their function. The vessels which receive blood from the heart, the elastic arteries, have thick, strong walls to cope with the sudden high pressure produced during diastole; they contain abundant elastic material to allow stretch so that the vessel lumen may accommodate the change of volume. They also have a thick, outer coat of collagenous connective tissue whose tensile strength prevents over-distension of the elastic tissue. The elastic recoil of these elastic arteries is responsible for maintaining a continuous, though decreased, flow of blood to smaller vessels during systole. Further along the arterial system, elastic components gradually diminish. Most of the muscle is arranged circularly, in the middle layer of the vessel wall (the tunica media). These muscular arteries contribute to the regulation of the amount of blood flowing into a region. Maintenance of blood pressure and the control of blood flow into capillary beds is affected through the action of nervous and humoral agents on the smallest vessels in the arterial system, the arterioles. The amount of muscle present decreases gradually from about 3 layers of muscle cells, to only 1 around the smallest precapillary arterioles. Capillary beds are the major site of the exchanges between blood and tissues. The walls of the capillary vessels consist of a layer of flattened endothelial cells, pericytes, a basement membrane and a few associated connective tissue fibers. The lumen of the smallest capillaries is just large enough to allow the passage of erythrocytes in single file. Exchange of materials across the capillary wall depends on the nature of the vessel; in discontinuous capillaries the endothelial cell poses no barrier; in continuous capillaries transport involves facilitated transfer across the endothelial cell by vesicles. Fenestrated capillaries have pores which are usually covered by a diaphragm and are intermediate in permeability between continuous and discontinuous capillaries. The capillary networks drain into thin-walled venules made up of an endothelium surrounded by connective tissue. Muscle cells appear as the venules unite, forming larger vessels and they eventually develop a continuous muscle coat. Some elastic fibers may be present in the larger veins; however, at no point are the muscular and elastic components as abundant or as clearly organized as in arteries of comparable size. Elastic Arteries: The innermost layer is the tunica intima which can be recognized as having a smooth more sharply defined free-edge than the opposite surface and no visible blood vessels. The intima is seen to be covered by the vessel lining, a layer of thin endothelial cells which may have been torn off in many places. The tunica media contains bundles of elastic fibers with gaps between them lying within a background of very fine collagen; the elastic membranes stain a deeper red-purple than the collagen. The cellular components of this layer consist of smooth muscle cells which will be difficult to see. The outermost layer, the tunica adventitia, consists of connective tissue with thick collagenous fibers. The adventitia contains numerous blood vessels (vasa vasorum; or blood vessels of the blood vessels) and nerves. Muscular Arteries: Good examples of muscular arteries with their accompanying veins can be seen within the connective tissue of the gall bladder. Even though many of the vessels contain blood cells, the flattened endothelial cells are visible. In these arteries, the intima is composed of the endothelium and a small amount of connective tissue which are bounded by the red staining internal elastic membrane. The wavy appearance of this elastic membrane is probably due to vessel contraction during fixation since in living vessels it appears as a smooth line. The media consists of smooth muscle arranged in a tight helix and some collagen and elastic fibers. Veins: There will be blood veins which accompany the muscular arteries. At low magnification, compare the relative thickness of the vessel walls. It should be obvious that for vessels with comparable sized lumens, the veins have a thinner wall and lack an internal elastic membrane. Practice distinguishing arteries and veins. Arterioles, Venules & Capillaries: The definition of what constitutes an arteriole is extraordinarily variable. The smallest branches of the vascular system can be observed scattered throughout the adipose and connective tissue. Arterioles have 1 to 3 layers of muscle in the media. The endothelial cells border a vessel lumen that has a very regular, round appearance. The smallest arterioles have a single muscle layer and the lumen diameter (10 µm) is slightly larger than that of an erythrocyte (6 µm). The adventitia is composed of collagenous connective tissue. At high magnification, capillaries can be located in the connective tissue. In cross-section, capillaries consist of a circular lumen made up of a very thin wall and, sometimes, a single endothelial cell nucleus can be seen. Look for longitudinal sections in which the lumen is only about 1 red cell diameter in thickness. In venules, the endothelial cells rest on connective tissue and their irregular lumens are the diameter of 2–3 erythrocytes. There is usually no smooth muscle present in the smallest venules. Several large lymphatic vessels are present with characteristic thin irregularly shaped walls and valves that extend into the lumen. The shape of the lumen is irregular and it may contain lymph, a few white blood cells and, occasionally, erythrocytes. Atrium is covered by endocardium which includes some pectinate muscles. Under very low power, locate the epicardial and endocardial surfaces. The endocardial surface consists of compact, pink-staining tissue made up of fine closely woven collagen and elastic fibers while the epicardial surface appears ragged by comparison since it contains loosely arranged bundles of coarser collagenous fibers. Both the mesothelial covering of the epicardium and the endothelium of the endocardium have been damaged during tissue preparation and will probably not be seen. The myocardium consists of widely spaced groups of cardiac muscle fibers interspersed with loose connective and adipose tissue. It is much thinner than the ventricular myocardium and relatively large blood vessels and nerves may be seen within abundant connective tissue. The loosely packed muscle fibers are thinner than those of the ventricle. Cardiovascular Diseases: What are cardiovascular diseases? Cardiovascular diseases include coronary heart disease (heart attacks), cerebrovascular disease, raised blood pressure (hypertension), peripheral artery disease, rheumatic heart disease, congenital heart disease and heart failure. The major causes of cardiovascular disease are tobacco use, physical inactivity, and an unhealthy diet. Globally, cardiovascular diseases are the number one cause of death and is projected to remain so. An estimated 17.5 million people died from cardiovascular disease in 2005, representing 30 % of all global deaths. Of these deaths, 7.6 million were due to heart attacks and 5.7 million due to stroke. About 80% of these deaths occurred in low- and middle-income countries. If current trends are allowed to continue, by 2015 an estimated 20 million people will die from cardiovascular disease (mainly from heart attacks and strokes). What causes heart attacks and strokes? Heart attacks and strokes are mainly caused by a blockage that prevents blood from flowing to the heart or the brain. The most common cause is a build-up of fatty deposits on the inner walls of the blood vessels that supply the heart or brain. The blood vessels become narrower and less flexible, also known as atherosclerosis (or hardening of the arteries). The blood vessels are then more likely to become blocked by blood clots. When this happens, the blocked vessels cannot supply blood to the heart and brain, which then become damaged. What are common symptoms of cardiovascular diseases? Often, there are no symptoms of the underlying disease of the blood vessels. A heart attack or stroke may be the first warning of underlying disease. Symptoms of a heart attack include: pain or discomfort in the centre of the chest; pain or discomfort in the arms, the left shoulder, elbows, jaw, or back. In addition the person may experience difficulty in breathing or shortness of breath; feeling sick or vomiting; feeling light-headed or faint; breaking into a cold sweat; and becoming pale. Women are more likely to have shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, and back or jaw pain. The most common symptom of a stroke is sudden weakness of the face, arm, or leg, most often on one side of the body. Other symptoms include sudden onset of: numbness of the face, arm, or leg, especially on one side of the body; confusion, difficulty speaking or understanding speech; difficulty seeing with one or both eyes; difficulty walking, dizziness, loss of balance or coordination; severe headache with no known cause; and fainting or unconsciousness. People experiencing these symptoms should seek medical care immediately. Why does fat build up in blood vessels? There are three main reasons for fatty build-up, all controllable: Smoking and other tobacco use Unhealthy diet; and Physical inactivity. An early form of fatty deposits, known as ''fatty streaks'', can even be found in some children younger than 10 years. These deposits get slowly worse as the person gets older. Key messages to protect heart health: Heart attacks and strokes are major - but preventable - killers worldwide. Over 80% of cardiovascular disease deaths take place in low-and middle-income countries and occur almost equally in men and women. Cardiovascular risk of women is high particularly after menopause. Tobacco use, an unhealthy diet, and physical inactivity increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes. Cessation of tobacco use reduces the chance of a heart attack or stroke. Engaging in physical activity for at least 30 minutes every day of the week will help to prevent heart attacks and strokes. Eating at least five servings of fruit and vegetables a day, and limiting your salt intake to less than one teaspoon a day, also helps to prevent heart attacks and strokes. High blood pressure has no symptoms, but can cause a sudden stroke or heart attack. Have your blood pressure checked regularly. Diabetes increases the risk of heart attacks and stroke. If you have diabetes control your blood pressure and blood sugar to minimize your risk. Being overweight increases the risk of heart attacks and strokes. To maintain an ideal body weight, take regular physical activity and eat a healthy diet. Heart attacks and strokes can strike suddenly and can be fatal if assistance is not sought immediately. Nutrition: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w8cuYEathvA Bread, Cereal, Rice and Pasta Group This food group is the largest portion of the daily recommended amounts. They provide carbohydrates, a main source of energy for the body. B vitamins, minerals and fibers are also provided by this food group. Vegetable Group Vegetables are the main source for vitamins (A and C in particular), fiber and are not high in fat content. Fruit Group Fruits are also a rich source of vitamins, mainly C. They are low in both fat and calories. Milk, Yogurt and Cheese Group Calcium, an extremely important nutrient, fills the foods in this group. Protein and Vitamin B12 are also contained in this group. Meat, Poultry, Dry Beans, Eggs and Nuts Animal products and the other members of this food group are good sources of protein, iron, zinc, and B vitamins. Fats, Oils and Sweets Providers of calories with no other nutritional value. Digestion The digestive system can be looked at from many of the jobs taking place in it, all of which will be discussed here. The simplest way to look at the digestive system is by concentrating on the anatomical sites which can be separated into the alimentary canal and the accessory organs. The alimentary canal is the path the things you eat and drink take from the time the enter your body until the time they leave it. Digestion takes place in most of the alimentary canal through the use of enzymes that are secreted by accessory glands. Mouth - Physical breakdown begins here with chewing. The teeth and tongue are used at this stage to collect the food into a ball called a bolus. The digestion of starches begins here with the help of salivary amylase this is secreted from the salivary glands. The salivary glands also secrete water and mucus that are helpful in forming and moistening the bolus. Collectively, the substance secreted by the salivary glands is called saliva. Esophagus - The esophagus is a simple passageway for the bolus from the mouth to the stomach. Stomach - The stomach, with an acidic pH of 1-2, kills germs with its high acidity and further breaks down the bolus. Gastric glands, located in the walls of the stomach, secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl), responsible for the low pH, and pepsinogen, an inactive enzyme that reacts with the acid and becomes an enzyme that helps in the breakdown of protein. Ulcers form when the mucus lining of the stomach is insufficient and the acid and enzymes damage the stomach walls. The food, now a mushy substance called chyme, then enters the small intestine. Small Intestine - Bile, produced in the liver and stored and concentrated in the gallbladder, as well as many enzymes secreted by the pancreas, react with the chyme in the small intestine. Bile works to break down fats by physical, not chemical, means. The pancreas secretes amylase to digest carbohydrates, lipases for fats and proteases for protein. Bicarbonate is also secreted by the pancreas, a basic substance, which neutralizes the acidity of the chyme to allow the enzymes to work. Internal folds inside the small intestine greatly increase the surface area allowing nutrient absorption to occur. Large Intestine - The chyme at this point as finished digesting and the large intestine, also known as the colon, absorbs water before excreting the feces. Anorexia Nervosa is a mental, health and eating disorder. The individual believes him/herself to be fat, while to have this disorder the weight of the person is 85% or lower than what is expected for that age and height. Depression, irritability, withdrawal, the inability to accept change and responsibility often accompany this disorder of extreme weight-loss. Anorexia Nervosa has the ability to kill. Bulimia is another mental, health and eating disorder. The individual binge eats for a certain period of time and follows this time with rapid weight loss, either with the use of vomiting, laxatives, exercise or fasting. The person becomes hungry, binge eats, and restarts the cycle. Overall weight, if Anorexia Nervosa is not present, may be maintained. As Anorexia Nervosa, this disorder has the ability to kill. Binge Eating Disorder is often found in individuals with a predisposition to weigh more, people who have failed many diet attempts, or as a means of comfort. The obsessive eating, or constant snacking, usually causes the individual to become obese and depressed. Diet programs are not helpful in stopping Binge Eating. Suggested by the March 2002 New England Journal of Medicine, a genetic flaw may be responsible for many binge eaters. Other less well-known eating disorders: Anorexia Athletica (Compulsive Exercising) Body Dysmorphic Disorder (Bigorexia) Chewing and Spitting Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome Gourmand Syndrome Infection-triggered Auto Immune Subtype of Anorexia in Children Night-Eating Syndrome Nocturnal Sleep-related Eating Disorder Orthorexia Nervosa Pica Prader-Willi Syndrome Rumination Syndrome Diets The Low-Carb Food Pyramid Exercise: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u65T3xf9J_c Physical activity is a medium for fitness and good health which keeps away a heart specialist from an individual. Exercise not only helps to fight heart disease, but for sedentary people, just adding a little exercise to the daily routine reduces the risk of high blood pressure, osteoporosis, breast and colon cancer, depression, anxiety and stress. The greatest benefit from physical activity is seen in people who formerly did no activity and then start to do activities such as walking, cycling, swimming and yogic exercises. What are the benefits of physical activity? Regular physical activity- improves the strength of heart which makes the heart to work more efficiently during exercise and at rest. The more activity people do, the greater is their capacity for exercise and the stronger is the heart which keeps away any heart problem. This leads to reducing of high blood pressure, controlling blood cholesterol levels, controlling diabetes by improving the body’s ability to metabolize glucose. helps weight reduction by mobilizing excess fat from the body. indirectly encourages people to quit smoking for maintaining proper health and fitness. improves flexibility and builds muscle. decreases total and LDL cholesterol ("bad cholesterol") raises HDL cholesterol ("good cholesterol") increases energy store in the body increases tolerance to anxiety, stress and depression controls / prevents the development of diabetes decreases risk of orthopedic injury by improving flexibility helps building healthy bones, muscles and joints. reduces the risk of colon cancer. How to design a fitness program? There are many programs which can be followed to improve physical fitness. Most generalized program recommended for fitness group, heart patients as well as sedentary population follows FIT formula: The FIT Formula: F = Frequency (number of days per week) I = Intensity (level of exercise like low, moderate or heavy) T = Time (duration of exercise per day) FREQUENCY: 3-5 days per week. Exercise can be extended up to six days in a week but not recommended for all seven days in a week since the body requires proper rest to tolerate exercise stress. INTENSITY: Intensity should be decided on the basis of target heart rate. Calculation of Target Heart Rate (THR) THR = 60% of Maximum heart rate = 0.6 x (220 – age). (220 – age = Predicted maximum heart rate) Example: For a person of 40 years old, predicted maximum heart rate is 220 - 40 = 180. The THR = 0.6 x 180 = 108 beats per minute. Therefore, it is recommended to go for continuous activity (jogging, walking, cycling, stair climbing, rowing, aerobics, and swimming etc) at such a speed that heart will pump at the rate of around 108 beats per min or within the range of 105 to 112 beats per min. To check this- stop for a while after 5 min of exercise and check the pulse for 6 sec and multiply the pulse with 10 to make it beats per min. In case the heart beat is less than 105 beats/min then increase the speed of exercise and recheck the pulse. If heart beat is more than 112 beats /min then slow down and recheck. Once the patient feels comfortable with this level of exercise, gradually the intensity may be increased by 5% after consultation with a doctor. But the upper limit should not be exceeded more than 80% of the maximum heart rate. However, physical activity should not be overdone, since too much exercise can result in injury. TIME (Duration): For beginners the exercise should be 5 to 10 min per day but slowly it can be increased to a minimum of 30 min per day and preferably 60 min per day. What are the modes of exercises? jogging, running, brisk walking, stair-climbing, aerobics. bicycling, rowing and swimming. Recreational games such as football, handball, basketball and tennis etc that include continuous running What is an Aerobic Exercise The term "aerobic" indicates ‘atmospheric oxygen’ and includes activities that enable the body to utilize oxygen to produce energy needed to perform the activities. Aerobic exercise consists of continuous rhythmic movements of large group of muscles that can be sustained for a prolonged period of time. These activities increase the heart rate and breathing rate and train the heart, lungs and muscles to utilize oxygen more efficiently. Aerobic exercise conditions the cardiovascular system and is also referred to as endurance exercise because it increases one's energy and capacity to perform work. Aerobic exercise is important to develop and maintain basic fitness. It benefits a heart patient when recovering from a heart attack or surgery because it specifically strengthens the heart. When a person should consult a doctor about exercise? In case of the following physical and physiological complaints, it is advised to consult a doctor before going for an exercise program. Heart disease. Chest pains with activities especially. Extreme shortness of breath after activities. Very high blood pressure. Prone to loose consciousness or get very dizzy. Bone or joint pains that could be made worse by activity. Insulin-dependent diabetes which is not properly controlled. Planning to vigorously exercise after a long period of inactivity How much exercise is recommended following a heart attack or bypass surgery? A minimum of 30 minutes low to moderate-intensity aerobic activity (jogging, walking, cycling, stair climbing, rowing, aerobics, and swimming etc) three to five days a week is recommended. Exercise should not be done all the seven days in a week. After a cardiac event, exercise should be started by walking 5 to 10 minutes per day. Once the patient feels comfortable with this level of exercise, gradually the duration may be increased up to five minutes each week. The speed of walking can also be increased slowly. What can be done to prevent heart problems in the future? Exercising regularly, making changes in daily schedule like avoiding high caloric diet and avoiding smoking risk of heart disease can be decreased in the future. Regular exercise reduces high blood pressure and cholesterol levels and helps maintaining fitness and health. What are the symptoms of angina or heart attack? Severe chest pain or discomfort that lasts for more than a few minutes and is not relieved by rest. The symptoms of a heart attack usually last longer and are more severe. Immediately consult a doctor. Avoid all physical activity. What are the dos and don’ts of exercising at home? · Always make your body warm (warm-up) before exercise. · Follow the target heart rate during exercise. · Always cool down after the exercise program · Keep an exercise diary and record your resting and exercise heart rates. · Do not exercise within two hours after a meal. · Don’t drink alcohol two hours before an exercising program · Don’t smoke before an exercising program. · For any abnormal symptoms, such as irregular heart beats, excessive shortness of breath or lightheadedness stop and rest. If the symptoms do not subside in a few minutes immediately consult a heart specialist.